Pra.Ma.

• Home
• NT-MDT
  • Test samples
    • STEPP
    • DNA01
  • Highly Oriented Pyrolitic Graphite
    • GRAS/1.2
    • GRAS/1.5
    • GRBS/1.2
    • GRBS/1.7
    • GRBS/2.0
    • GRHS/1.2
    • GRHS/1.7
    • GRHS/2.0
  • Calibration Gratings
    • TGG1
    • TGQ1
    • TGT1
    • TGX1
    • TGZ1
    • TGZ2
    • TGZ3
    • TDG01
    • TDG01 Au
    • SNG01
    • TGS1
    • TGS1 PTB
    • TGS2
    • TGSFull
  • Noncontact/Semicontact probes
  • Probe NanoLaboratories
    • NTEGRA platform
    • Raman spectroscopy AFM system NTEGRA Spectra
    • SPM system with ultramicrotome NTEGRA Tomo
    • Life science SPM system NTEGRA Vita
    • Nearfield optical SPM system NTEGRA Solaris
    • Automatized SPM system NTEGRA Maximus
    • Vacuum SPM system NTEGRA Aura
    • Temperature SPM system NTEGRA Therma
    • Universal SPM system NTEGRA Prima
  • Scanning Probe Microscopes
    • SPM system SMENA
    • SPM system Solver P47H-PRO
    • SPM system Solver P47-PRO
    • SPM system Solver EC
    • SPM system Solver MFM
    • SPM system Solver HV
    • SPM system Solver LS
    • SPM system Solver SNOM
    • SPM system Solver BIO-M
    • SPM system Solver PRO-M
  • Software
    • DNA Calc
    • Deconvolution tool
  • SPM Accessories
  • Compatible products
    • VideoAFM
  • SPMs
    • SPM system SMENA
    • SPM system Solver P47H-PRO
    • SPM system Solver P47-PRO
    • SPM system Solver EC
    • SPM system Solver MFM
    • SPM system Solver HV
    • SPM system Solver LS
    • SPM system Solver SNOM
    • SPM system Solver BIO-M
    • SPM system Solver PRO-M
  • Probe NanoLaboratories
    • NTEGRA platform
    • Raman spectroscopy AFM system NTEGRA Spectra
    • SPM system with ultramicrotome NTEGRA Tomo
    • Life science SPM system NTEGRA Vita
    • Nearfield optical SPM system NTEGRA Solaris
    • Automatized SPM system NTEGRA Maximus
    • Vacuum SPM system NTEGRA Aura
    • Temperature SPM system NTEGRA Therma
    • Universal SPM system NTEGRA Prima
  • Parts & Kits
    • SCC02NTF
    • SCC03NTF
    • SCC04NTF
    • SCC05NTF
    • SCC06NTF
    • SCC01NTF
    • SCB04aNTF
    • SCB03aNTF
    • CH01L
    • SC100NTF
    • SC210NTF
    • SC250NTF
    • SCC08NTF
    • SCC09NTF
    • SF005NTF
    • SFC050HNTF
    • SFC050LNTF
    • SFC050NTF
    • SFC101LNTF
    • SFS18EC
    • SFT03NTF
    • SFV150NTF
    • SNA01
    • SNLG100NTF
    • ST007NTF
    • ST020NTF
    • SUT01NTF
    • AUST01NTF
    • AU006NTF, AU007NTF
    • AU020NTF
    • AU028NTF
    • AU030NTF
    • SU005NTF
    • SU045NTF
    • AFAM03NTF
    • MP3EC
    • MP3LC
    • MP4EC
    • MP4LCNTF
    • MP5LCNTF
    • XYZ01
    • BL222RNTF
    • BP001
    • IN005
    • SAM01
    • AC006NTF
    • AC007NTF
    • MOD-1 M+
    • TS-150
    • LM001
    • LM002
    • CCBC1
    • SU001
    • SU002
  • Software
    • DNA Calc
    • Deconvolution tool
  • Calibration Gratings
    • TGG1
    • TGQ1
    • TGT1
    • TGX1
    • TGZ1
    • TGZ2
    • TGZ3
    • TDG01
    • TDG01 Au
    • SNG01
    • TGS1
    • TGS1 PTB
    • TGS2
    • TGSFull
  • HOPG
    • GRAS/1.2
    • GRAS/1.5
    • GRBS/1.2
    • GRBS/1.7
    • GRBS/2.0
    • GRHS/1.2
    • GRHS/1.7
    • GRHS/2.0
  • Probes
    • SNOM
      • MF002
      • MF003
      • MF004
    • Coated
      • CSG11/W2C
      • CSG10/W2C
      • CSG01/W2C
      • NSG20/Au
      • NSG11/Au
      • NSG10/Au
      • NSG01/Au
      • NSG20/TiN
      • NSG11/TiN
      • NSG10/TiN
      • NSG03/TiN
      • NSG01/TiN
      • NSG20/Pt
      • NSG11/Pt
      • NSG10/Pt
      • NSG03/Pt
      • NSG01/Pt
      • NSG20/W2C
      • NSG11/W2C
      • NSG10/W2C
      • NSG03/W2C
      • NSG01/W2C
      • DCP11
      • DCP20
      • CSG01/Pt
      • CSG10/Pt
      • CSG11/Pt
      • CSG01/TiN
      • CSG10/TiN
      • CSG11/TiN
      • CSG01/Au
      • CSG10/Au
      • CSG11/Au
      • NSG01/Co
      • NSG03/Co
    • Contact
      • CSG11S
      • CSG10S
      • CSG01S
      • CSG11 tipless
      • CSC05 10°
      • CSC05 20°
      • CSG01
      • CSG10
      • CSG11
    • Non contact
      • NSG20S
      • NSG11S
      • NSG10S
      • NSG01S
      • NSG11 tipless
      • NSG20 tipless
      • NSC05 20°
      • NSC05 10°
      • NSG10 DLC
      • NSG01 DLC
      • NSG20
      • NSG10
      • NSG03
      • NSG01
    • Non contact
      • NSG20S
      • NSG11S
      • NSG10S
      • NSG01S
      • NSG11 tipless
      • NSG20 tipless
      • NSC05 20°
      • NSC05 10°
      • NSG10 DLC
      • NSG01 DLC
      • NSG20
      • NSG10
      • NSG03
      • NSG01
    • Contact
      • CSG11S
      • CSG10S
      • CSG01S
      • CSG11 tipless
      • CSC05 10°
      • CSC05 20°
      • CSG01
      • CSG10
      • CSG11
    • Coated
      • CSG11/W2C
      • CSG10/W2C
      • CSG01/W2C
      • NSG20/Au
      • NSG11/Au
      • NSG10/Au
      • NSG01/Au
      • NSG20/TiN
      • NSG11/TiN
      • NSG10/TiN
      • NSG03/TiN
      • NSG01/TiN
      • NSG20/Pt
      • NSG11/Pt
      • NSG10/Pt
      • NSG03/Pt
      • NSG01/Pt
      • NSG20/W2C
      • NSG11/W2C
      • NSG10/W2C
      • NSG03/W2C
      • NSG01/W2C
      • DCP11
      • DCP20
      • CSG01/Pt
      • CSG10/Pt
      • CSG11/Pt
      • CSG01/TiN
      • CSG10/TiN
      • CSG11/TiN
      • CSG01/Au
      • CSG10/Au
      • CSG11/Au
      • NSG01/Co
      • NSG03/Co
    • SNOM
      • MF002
      • MF003
      • MF004
  • Test samples
    • STEPP
    • DNA01
• SPECS
  • Effusion Cells
    • Power Supplies
    • Water Cooling Systems
    • Shutters
    • Crucibles
    • Standard Effusion Cell (SFC)
    • Molybdenum Effusion Cell
    • Low Temperature Effusion Cell (LTC)
    • High Temperature Effusion Cell (HTC)
    • Dual Filament Cell (DFC)
    • Cold Lip Effusion Cell (CLC)
    • Cracker Effusion Cell (CRC)
    • Valved Cracker Effusion Cell
    • Valved Effusion Cell (V-LTC)
    • Carbon Cell (EBC)
    • Atomic Hydrogen Source (TGC-H)
    • Near-Ambient Temperature Cell (NATC)
  • Thin film growth
    • Plasma Cracker Source PCS-ECR
    • Plasma Cracker Source PCS-RF
    • Mini ECR Plasma Source MPS-ECR
    • Electron Beam Evaporator EBE-1
    • Multi Pocket Electron Beam Evaporator EBE-4
    • Thermal Gas Cracker TGC-H
  • MBE
    • Evaporation Guide
    • RHEED
    • MBE & Surface Analysis Systems
    • Manipulators for MBE systems
    • MBE Accessories
  • LEED
    • ErLEED 100/150 optics
    • SAFIRE for LEED / RHEED
  • LEEM/PEEM
    • FE-LEEM P90
  • Instrumentation for Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM)
    • STM 150 Aarhus
    • CreaTec Low Temperature STM (LT STM)
  • Sources
    • X-ray Source XR 50
    • FOCUS 500 X-ray monochromator
    • Ultraviolet Source UVS 10/35
    • Ultraviolet Source UVS 300
    • High Transmission Toroidal Mirror Monochromator - TMM 302
    • Ion Source IQE 12/38
    • Ion Source IQE 11/35
    • Ion Source IQP 10/63
    • Wien Mass Filter (for Ion Sources)
    • Flood Gun FG 15/40
    • Electron Source EQ 22/35
  • Surface Analysis Systems
    • Customized Systems
    • Sage (ESCA)
    • INA-X
  • Electron Spectrometers
    • DELTA 0.5 HR EELS Spectrometer
    • Hemispherical Energy Analyzer PHOIBOS 100/150
    • Hemispherical Energy Analyzer PHOIBOS 225
  • Electron Spectrometers
    • DELTA 0.5 HR EELS Spectrometer
    • Hemispherical Energy Analyzer PHOIBOS 100/150
    • Hemispherical Energy Analyzer PHOIBOS 225
  • Surface Analysis Systems
    • Customized Systems
    • Sage (ESCA)
    • INA-X
  • Sources
    • X-ray Source XR 50
    • FOCUS 500 X-ray monochromator
    • Ultraviolet Source UVS 10/35
    • Ultraviolet Source UVS 300
    • High Transmission Toroidal Mirror Monochromator - TMM 302
    • Ion Source IQE 12/38
    • Ion Source IQE 11/35
    • Ion Source IQP 10/63
    • Wien Mass Filter (for Ion Sources)
    • Flood Gun FG 15/40
    • Electron Source EQ 22/35
  • Scanning Probe Microscopy
    • STM 150 Aarhus
    • CreaTec Low Temperature STM (LT STM)
  • LEEM/PEEM
    • FE-LEEM P90
  • LEED
    • ErLEED 100/150 optics
    • SAFIRE for LEED / RHEED
  • MBE
    • Evaporation Guide
    • RHEED
    • MBE & Surface Analysis Systems
    • Manipulators for MBE systems
    • MBE Accessories
    • Effusion Cells
      • Power Supplies
      • Water Cooling Systems
      • Shutters
      • Crucibles
      • Standard Effusion Cell (SFC)
      • Molybdenum Effusion Cell
      • Low Temperature Effusion Cell (LTC)
      • High Temperature Effusion Cell (HTC)
      • Dual Filament Cell (DFC)
      • Cold Lip Effusion Cell (CLC)
      • Cracker Effusion Cell (CRC)
      • Valved Cracker Effusion Cell
      • Valved Effusion Cell (V-LTC)
      • Carbon Cell (EBC)
      • Atomic Hydrogen Source (TGC-H)
      • Near-Ambient Temperature Cell (NATC)
  • Thin film growth
    • Plasma Cracker Source PCS-ECR
    • Plasma Cracker Source PCS-RF
    • Mini ECR Plasma Source MPS-ECR
    • Electron Beam Evaporator EBE-1
    • Multi Pocket Electron Beam Evaporator EBE-4
    • Thermal Gas Cracker TGC-H
• CSM Instruments
  • 3D Imaging
    • CONSCAN objective (CON)
    • Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
  • Calotest
    • Calowear
    • Industrial Calotest
    • Calotest
  • Tribometer
    • High Vacuum Tribometer (down to 10-7 mbar)
    • High Temperature Tribometer (up to 1000°C)
    • Standard Tribometer
    • The Nano Tribometer
  • Indentation
    • Micro Indenter (0.03 - 30N)
    • Nano Indentation Tester
    • Ultra Nano Indenter (0.025 - 100mN)
  • Scratch
    • REVETEST Xpress (1N - 200N)
    • Revetest (1N - 200N)
    • Micro Scratch Tester (30mN - 30N)
    • Nano Scratch Tester (10uN - 1N)
  • 3D Imaging
    • CONSCAN objective (CON)
    • Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
  • Calotest
    • Calowear
    • Industrial Calotest
    • Calotest
  • Tribometer
    • High Vacuum Tribometer (down to 10-7 mbar)
    • High Temperature Tribometer (up to 1000°C)
    • Standard Tribometer
    • The Nano Tribometer
  • Indentation
    • Micro Indenter (0.03 - 30N)
    • Nano Indentation Tester
    • Ultra Nano Indenter (0.025 - 100mN)
  • Scratch
    • REVETEST Xpress (1N - 200N)
    • Revetest (1N - 200N)
    • Micro Scratch Tester (30mN - 30N)
    • Nano Scratch Tester (10uN - 1N)
• Minus K technology
  • Tavoli antivibrazioni
    • BM-8 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BM-10 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BM-6 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BM-4 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BM-1 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BA-1 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
  • Piattaforme antivibrazioni
    • BM-8 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BM-10 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BM-6 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BM-4 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BM-1 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform
    • BA-1 Bench Top Vibration Isolation Platform

• Search
• SPM basics
  • Scanning Tunnel Microscopy
    • 1.1 STM Physical Backgrounds
      • 1.1.1 Tunneling Effect
      • 1.1.2 Tunneling Effect in Quasiclassical Approximation
      • 1.1.3 Metal Energy-Band Structure
    • 1.2 Tunnel Current in MIM System
      • 1.2.1 John G. Simmons Formula
      • 1.2.1 Appendix.
      • 1.2.2 John G. Simmons Formula in a Case of Small, Intermediate and High Voltage (Field Emission Mode
    • 1.3 Observed Physical Quantities in STM
      • 1.3.1 Current-Voltage Characteristic
      • 1.3.2 Current-Distance Characteristic
      • 1.3.3 Measurements of the Electronic States Density
      • 1.3.4 Work-Function Distribution Study
• SPM principles
  • Lithographies
    • AFM Oxidation Lithography
    • STM Lithography
    • AFM Lithography-Scratching
    • AFM Lithography-Dynamic Plowing
  • SNOM
    • SNOM techniques
    • Shear Force Microscopy
    • Transmission mode
    • Reflection mode
    • Luminescence mode
    • SNOM Lithography
  • Spectroscopies
    • Spectroscopies
    • Force-distance curves
    • Adhesion Force imaging
    • Amplitude-distance curves
    • Phase-distance curves
    • Frequency-distance curves
    • Full-resonance Spectroscopy
  • STM
    • Constant Current mode
    • I(V) Spectroscopy
    • I(z) Spectroscopy
    • Density of States imaging
    • Barrier Height imaging
    • Constant Height mode
  • STM techniques
    • Constant Current mode
    • Constant Height mode
    • Barrier Height imaging
    • Density of States imaging
    • I(z) Spectroscopy
    • I(V) Spectroscopy
  • AFM techniques
    • Many-pass
      • Many-pass techniques
      • EFM
      • Scanning Capacitance Microscopy
      • Kelvin Probe Microscopy
      • DC MFM
      • AC MFM
      • Dissipation Force Microscopy
    • Non Contact
      • Non-Contact techniques
      • Non-Contact mode
      • Frequency Modulation mode
    • Semicontact
      • Semicontact techniques
      • Semicontact mode
      • Phase Imaging mode
      • Semicontact Error mode
    • ac Contact
      • ac Contact techniques
      • Force Modulation mode
      • Contact EFM
      • AFAM
      • AFAM Resonance Spectroscopy
      • Piezoresponse Force Microscopy
    • dc Contact
      • Contact Error mode
      • dc Contact techniques
      • Constant Height mode
      • Constant Force mode
      • Lateral Force Imaging
      • Spreading Resistance Imaging
    • dc Contact
      • Contact Error mode
      • dc Contact techniques
      • Constant Height mode
      • Constant Force mode
      • Lateral Force Imaging
      • Spreading Resistance Imaging
    • ac Contact
      • ac Contact techniques
      • Force Modulation mode
      • Contact EFM
      • AFAM
      • AFAM Resonance Spectroscopy
      • Piezoresponse Force Microscopy
    • Semicontact
      • Semicontact techniques
      • Semicontact mode
      • Phase Imaging mode
      • Semicontact Error mode
    • Non-Contact
      • Non-Contact techniques
      • Non-Contact mode
      • Frequency Modulation mode
    • Many-pass
      • Many-pass techniques
      • EFM
      • Scanning Capacitance Microscopy
      • Kelvin Probe Microscopy
      • DC MFM
      • AC MFM
      • Dissipation Force Microscopy
  • SNOM
    • SNOM techniques
    • Shear Force Microscopy
    • Transmission mode
    • Reflection mode
    • Luminescence mode
    • SNOM Lithography
  • Spectroscopies
    • Spectroscopies
    • Force-distance curves
    • Adhesion Force imaging
    • Amplitude-distance curves
    • Phase-distance curves
    • Frequency-distance curves
    • Full-resonance Spectroscopy
  • Lithographies
    • AFM Oxidation Lithography
    • STM Lithography
    • AFM Lithography-Scratching
    • AFM Lithography-Dynamic Plowing
• Glossary

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